FAQ Module: COVID-19
Frequently Asked Questions on COVID-19 Epidemiology, Prevention, and Clinical Management

Released: June 01, 2022

Expiration: May 31, 2023

Arthur Kim
Arthur Kim, MD
Sharon R. Lewin
Sharon R. Lewin, AO, FRACP, PhD, FAHMS
Renslow Sherer
Renslow Sherer, MD

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References

Aggarwal A, Ospina Stella A, Walker G, et al. SARS-CoV-2 omicron: evasion of potent humoral responses and resistance to clinical immunotherapeutics relative to viral variants of concern. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed.

Ahmed A, Rojo P, Agwu A, et al. Remdesivir treatment for COVID-19 in hospitalized children: CARAVAN interim results. Presented at: 2022 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 12-16, 2022. Abstract 744.

AstraZeneca. New Vaxzevria data further support its use as third dose booster. astrazeneca.com/media-centre/press-releases/2022/new-vaxzevria-data-further-support-its-use-as-third-dose-booster.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Atmar RL, Lyke KE, Deming ME, et al. Heterologous SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccinations - preliminary report. medRxiv. 2021;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed.

Bernal AJ, Gomes da Silva MM, Musungaie DB, et al. Molnupiravir for oral treatment of COVID-19 in nonhospitalized patients. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:509-520.

Burki TK. Fourth dose of COVID-19 vaccines in Israel. Lancet Respir Med. 2022;10:e19.

Caly L, Druce JD, Catton MG, et al. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Res. 2020;178:104787.

Cameroni E, Bowen JE, Rosen LE et al. Broadly neutralizing antibodies overcome SARS-CoV-2 Omicron antigenic shift. Nature. 2021;602:664-670.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)-Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network (COVID-NET). cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/covid-net/purpose-methods.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 vaccine booster shots. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/booster-shot.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 vaccines for moderately to severely immunocompromised people. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/recommendations/immuno.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Different COVID-19 vaccines. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim clinical considerations for use of COVID-19 vaccines currently approved or authorized in the United States. cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/covid-19-vaccines-us.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Omicron variant: what you need to know. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/omicron-variant.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. People with certain medical conditions. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Post-COVID conditions: information for healthcare providers. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/clinical-care/post-covid-conditions.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reinfections and COVID-19. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/your-health/reinfection.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The possibility of COVID-19 after vaccination: breakthrough infections. cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/effectiveness/why-measure-effectiveness/breakthrough-cases.html. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Chuah CH, Chow TS, Hor CP, et al. Efficacy of early treatment with favipiravir on disease progression among high risk COVID-19 patients: a randomized, open-label clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;Epub ahead of print.

COVID-OUT: outpatient treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection, a factorial randomized trial. covidout.umn.edu/. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Cox RM, Wolf JD, Lieber CM, et al. Oral prodrug of remdesivir parent GS-441524 is efficacious against SARS-CoV-2 in ferrets. Nat Commun. 2021;12:6415.

Dougan M, Azizad M, Chen P, et al. Bebtelovimab, alone or together with bamlanivimab and etesevimab, as a broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibody treatment for mild to moderate, ambulatory COVID-19. medRxiv. 2022;Preprint. Note: this study has not been peer reviewed.

Elliott P, Eales O, Bodinier B, et al. Post-peak dynamics of a national omicron SARS-CoV-2 epidemic during January 2022. Spiral, Imperial College London. 2022;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed.

Folegatti PM, Ewer KJ, Aley PK, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine against SARS-CoV-2: a preliminary report of a phase 1/2, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020;396:467-478.

Gottlieb RL, Vaca CE, Paredas R, et al. Early remdesivir to prevent progression to severe COVID-19 in outpatients. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:305-315.

Hammond J, Leister-Tebbe H, Gardner A, et al. Oral nirmatrelvir for high-risk, nonhospitalized adults with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1397-1408.

HHS Telehealth. Telehealth and COVID-19. telehealth.hhs.gov/patients/telehealth-and-covid/. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Infectious Diseases Society of America. IDSA guideline on the treatment and management of COVID-19: oral antiviral agents. idsociety.org/globalassets/idsa/practice-guidelines/covid-19/treatment/idsa-covid-19-gl-tx-and-mgmt---oral-antivirals-2021-12-24.pdf. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Kirsebom F, Andrews N, Sachdeva R, et al. Effectiveness of ChAdOx1-S COVID-19 booster vaccination against the omicron and delta variants in England. medRxiv. 2022;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed. 

Mao T, Israelow B, Suberi A, et al. Unadjuvanted intranasal spike vaccine booster elicits robust protective mucosal immunity against sarbecoviruses. bioRxiv. 2022;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed.

Moderna. Moderna announces clinical update on bivalent COVID-19 booster platform. investors.modernatx.com/news/news-details/2022/Moderna-Announces-Clinical-Update-on-Bivalent-COVID-19-Booster-Platform/default.aspx. Accessed May 31, 2022.

National Institutes of Health. Clinical Management Summary. covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/management/clinical-management/clinical-management-summary/. Accessed May 31, 2022.

National Institutes of Health. The COVID-19 treatment guidelines panel’s interim statement on patient prioritization for outpatient anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies or preventive strategies when there are logistical or supply constraints. covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapies/statement-on-patient-prioritization-for-outpatient-therapies/. Accessed May 31, 2022.

National Institutes of Health. Ritonavir-boosted nirmatrelvir (Paxlovid). covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/therapies/antiviral-therapy/ritonavir-boosted-nirmatrelvir—paxlovid. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Nirmatrelvir plus ritonavir prescribing information. New York, NY: Pfizer; 2022.

Pfizer. Pfizer and BioNTech initiate study to evaluate omicron-based COVID-19 vaccine in adults 18 to 55 years of age; 2022. pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/pfizer-and-biontech-initiate-study-evaluate-omicron-based. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Pfizer. Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine demonstrates strong immune response, high efficacy and favorable safety in children 6 months to under 5 years of age following third dose. pfizer.com/news/press-release/press-release-detail/Pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine-demonstrates-strong-immune. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Planas D, Saunders N, Maes P, et al. Considerable escape of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron to antibody neutralization. Nature. 2022;602:671-675.

Owen DR, Allerton CMN, Anderson AS, et al. An oral SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibitor clinical candidate for the treatment of COVID-19. Science. 2021;374:1586-1593.

Reis G, Silva EASM, Silva DCM, et al. Effect of early treatment with ivermectin among patients with COVID-19. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1721-1731.

Remdesivir prescribing information. Foster City, CA: Gilead Sciences; 2022.

Ritonavir prescribing information. Chicago, IL: AbbVie; 2020.

Schäfer A, Martinez DR, Won JJ, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of an oral nucleoside analog of remdesivir against SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis in mice. bioRxiv. 2021;2021.09.13.460111.

Schmidt C. COVID-19 long haulers. Nat Biotechnol. 2021;39:908-913.

Schultz DC, Johnson RM, Ayyanathan K, et al. Pyrimidine inhibitors synergize with nucleoside analogues to block SARS-CoV-2. Nature. 2022;604:134-140.

Seeßle J, Waterboer T, Hippchen T, et al. Persistent symptoms in adult patients one year after COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;74:1191-1198.

Su Y, Yuan D, Chen DG, et al. Multiple early factors anticipate post-acute COVID-19 sequelae. Cell. 2022;185:881-895.

Takashita E, Kinoshita N, Yamayoshi S, et al. Efficacy of antiviral agents against the SARS-CoV-2 omicron subvariant BA.2. NEJM. 2022;386:1475-1477.

The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics. Tixagevimab and cilgavimab (Evusheld) for pre-exposure prophylaxis of COVID-19. JAMA. 2022;327:384-385.

Udwadia ZF, Singh P, Barkate H, et al. Efficacy and safety of favipiravir, an oral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor, in mild-to-moderate COVID-19: A randomized, comparative, open-label, multicenter, phase 3 clinical trial. Int J Infect Dis. 2021;103:62-71.

UK Health Security Agency. COVID-19 vaccine surveillance report: week 5. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1052353/Vaccine_surveillance_report_-_week_5.pdf. Accessed May 31, 2022.

UK Health Security Agency. The effectiveness of vaccination against long COVID: A rapid evidence briefing. ukhsa.koha-ptfs.co.uk/cgi-bin/koha/opac-retrieve-file.pl?id=fe4f10cd3cd509fe045ad4f72ae0dfff. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for bebtelovimab. www.fda.gov/media/156152/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for molnupiravir. fda.gov/media/155054/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for nirmatrelvir plus ritonavir. fda.gov/media/155050/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for remdesivir. fda.gov/media/137566/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for sotrovimab. fda.gov/media/149534/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use authorization for tixagevimab plus cilgavimab. fda.gov/media/154701/download. Accessed May 31, 2022.

US Food and Drug Administration. Why you should not use ivermectin to treat or prevent COVID-19. fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/why-you-should-not-use-ivermectin-treat-or-prevent-covid-19. Accessed May 31, 2022.

Vermillion MS, Murakami E, Ma B, et al. Inhaled remdesivir reduces viral burden in a nonhuman primate model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Sci Transl Med. 2022;Epub ahead of print.

Wang L, Berger NA, Kaelber DC, et al. Comparison of outcomes from COVID infection in pediatric and adult patients before and after the emergence of Omicron. medRxiv. 2022;Preprint. Note: This study has not been peer reviewed.

World Health Organization. Interim recommendations for use of the ChAdOx1-S recombinant vaccine against COVID-19 (AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine AZD1222 Vaxzevria, SII COVISHIELD). who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-SAGE_recommendation-AZD1222-2021.1. Accessed May 31, 2022.